Theme 4: Quantitative Research

Digital Natives as Learners: Technology use and approaches to learning.
Written by Penny Thompson
Journal: Computers & Education, Impact factor 2.775

The main focus with the paper is to study the "digital native" generation as learners. The paper contains a quantitative method in form of an online survey towards 388 freshmen in a specific university to gather data in order to evaluate if this generation of students think and learn differently than previous generations. The survey aimed to reach out to 3000 freshmen, but only got a response rate of 13 %, which means that generalization of the study is not possible to the extent as the researchers desires. The study explores the relationship between technology use patterns and approaches to learning. The description of a “digital native learner” is presented throughout the article with a table, hence the fact that they claim there is no single definition of the "digital learner" that can easily be tested through research. They use Prensky's "Ten characteristics of the Games Generation" and also include other popular writers. In order to define them further they present potential benefits and risks for learning in each characteristic, and table was used as a basis for the questionnaire, which was divided up in four parts.

The low response at the certain university shows that a sample of 388 participants is no way near sufficient to understand the depth and create a statistical analysis to observe patterns and trends for this “digital native" generation. Another problem that I do reflect upon is how the researchers aimed to get a generalized picture by only reaching out to one specific university, without keeping in mind that surrounding factors possibly will have an impact. The article shows only a scratch on the surface of the subject, the relevance to get a clear picture of “digital native” generation should answer the five W:s (why, when, where, what, who) which I believe is accurate in this type of study. And in order to answer the five W:s they should have used a combination of qualitative and quantitative method. They mention in the concluding remarks that findings from the study is that teachers can play a critical role in preparing students for success in the digital world, which yet again only could be based upon this outcome at this certain university.

Summary of Physical activity, stress, and self-reported upper respiratory tract infection. Benefits, limitations of quantitative vs. qualitative methods.

The aim with the paper is to examine the relationship between physical activity level and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI). The writers aspire to see if there is a connection between physical activity and perceived stress. In order to do this they use a quantitative method in form of web questionnaires. The study involved 1509 participants in the age between 20-60 years, during a 4 months period of time with 5 follow up questionnaires that reached 74% of the total participants.

The first thing I relate to while reading the question about quantitative methods is that this is a method that Statistiska Centralbyrån is using. By analyzing the paper Physical Activity, Stress, and Self-Reported Upper Respiratory Tract Infection, viewing their outcome of the study that is conducted, I draw certain conclusions about benefits and limitations. The beneficial parts of this method are that it can be used for a large scale of data collection, in this case, 1509 participants. The result provides a lot of information and is easily presented in graphs and other statistical visualizations. It creates a possibility to combine data and compare these to each other – which enables to introduce a correlation between outcomes.

The main disadvantages with this approach of method are for example that questions in the survey could be subjectively interpreted. It is also hard to get a deeper understanding for the subject. A quantitative method is not something that is permanent over time, which means that the result can vary. In the study we also see that the aim was to reach out to 5000, but only got 1509 participants and 3195 non-responders. In the end it was only 74% that answered to all 5 follow-ups, which shows us that it sometimes is difficult to get the amount of data-collection you intend to get. In this particular case, it may depend on the way they decided to approach the participants – by mail.  Table 2 shows us that there are a smaller number of participants between the ages 50-60 comparing to participants between 20-29.

Compared to quantitative methods, qualitative methods are conducted to gain necessary information and answer the question why. The method is used to comprehend more narrow situations in a deeper sense, which often is a benefit. Qualitative collection can be in form of focus groups and observations. The limitations in this case are that it is not achievable to represent conclusions and generalize anything about “the rest”, besides from the group you have observed or analyzed.

References:

Thompson, P, (2013). Digital Natives as Learnes: Technology use and approaches to learning, Computers & Education, Volume 65, pp.12-33 Avaliable at: http://www.sciencedirect.com.focus.lib.kth.se/science/article/pii/S0360131513000225

Fondell, E. et al., (2011). Physical activity, stress, and self-reported upper respiratory tract infection. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 43(2), pp.272–279. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20581713 

Reflection Theme 3: Research and Theory

What I consider has been most rewarding for my personal progress regarding the third theme in the course, is to be able to reflect upon my own judgment about what theory is and not. Or at least what I have thought it was. I believe this subject of matter is fundamental knowledge towards the end of our studies, and something that people frequently get incredibly confused about. By reading other blog posts about my co-students choices of articles and journals I’ve soaked up a lot about what is useful contrary to what is not towards the contribution within researching and different theories in information systems.

The combination of reading the literature for last week’s theme, which consisted of Information system research (Gregor, 2006) and What theory is not (Sutton & Staw, 1995) , was an excellent mixture which made me comprehend a clear distinction in structure and work of a good article. This is what I further on will focus on regarding arrangement of my studies. I believe, that I’m not only the one that have been focusing on articles while doing my research for certain papers I’ve been writing through my studies. I consider it is beneficial to rearrange my structure to review journals with a certain impact factor, and therefore being able to select articles of larger importance targeted to what I in actual fact have use of.

However, I missed the seminars, due the fact that I got sick. I certainly believe that it had been encouraging to interact with my co-students verbally as well, in order to discuss different point of views regarding the different theories and the papers we read and also individually selected. I had a Skype meeting with one in my seminar group to get a greater understanding of what I’ve missed, and after this decided to focus on reading the blog posts to keep my self updated what type of articles have been discussed during the seminars. Although I see a certain pattern in what people chose while selecting journals, my conclusion is that these journals could be compared to a spider web that ties together essential articles in form of nodes of information in an interesting manner that is of great importance for Information research in Media Technology.  

Even though this is just our third theme, and half way through the course, I find the structure helpful of broadening our way of critical thinking, and independently relate to what we have learnt this far. While the beginning consisted of getting a grasp of the philosophical thinking, we have now preceded to a part of independently relate our knowledge to the extent by analyzing articles and assemble our own judgments. And i am looking forward to the second part of the course. 

Theme 3: Research and Theory

The Journal

The Journal I have selected for Theme 3: Research and Theory is New Media and Society, which is an international journal that focus on global and local aspects of new media and social change, it also covers aspects on implications and impacts of media change but also relation between theory, policy and practice. A few topics that I can mention to get a clearer picture of what type of articles this journal publishes are related to digitalization, convergence, interactivity and virtuality.

The impact factor of this journal is 1.824.

The research paper

The research paper i’ve chosen is called Re: Search and is written by Mark Graham, Ralph Schroeder and Greg Taylor from the University of Oxford. Throughout the paper the authors touches the shell of links between information and power of social aspects in search behavior. The focus of the paper is Search, something they define as power of accessing and shape information. “Separating the relevant from the irrelevant and the knowable from the unknowable”. The main purpose of the paper is to compare four papers and the connection between information, knowledge and power. They focus on search engines because it contains the tremendous amount of content, to order, structure, filter, rank and make sense out of an enormous capacity of information that we are able to collect. They highlight the aspects of the significance that search engines have only existed for the last two decades because of the fact that powerful companies have made the possibility to access to information. Although, they also underline that those who design and control these search engines have an enormous amount of social power. Major search engines, such as Google, do have critics (users, academics etc) who are apprehensive regarding the power that is concentrated in the hands of these powerful players.

What is Theory? 
Sutton & Staw explains in the paper “What theory is not” a greater understanding on the topic of misunderstandings regarding what people should have in mind while writing a research paper. The most frequent mistakes that mostly occur are the “five elements”: Data, variables, references, diagrams and hypotheses. These are all important fundamentals in a paper – but should not be conceded for being theory. A primary key of what a theory is – something that explains WHY these elements bring the outcome to a certain result, and a logical system connecting a relationship between “elements”. Kaplan (1964) and Merton (1967) explain theory as an answer to queries of why – which could be considered as a brief explanation of the subject.

What type of theory in my selected paper? Benefits, limitations. 
According to Gregor there are five different types of theories that could exist in papers that covers information system research. These are defined as Analysis, Explanation, Prediction, Explanation and Prediction and Design and Action. The paper presented in this theme (re: search) has one major theory that could be defined as analysis. The reason why analysis is the one of five that fits the paper from Gregor’s taxonomy of theory types, is because it focused on analyzing and describing what power search engines today have. That these play a role as gatekeepers and have a power of providing information about human needs and behavior by comparing four different papers throughout the paper. 

References 
Sage Journals. 2013. New media society: http://nms.sagepub.com/  

Graham, M., Schroeder, R & Taylor, G., 2013,
Re: Search: http://nms.sagepub.com.focus.lib.kth.se/content/15/8/1366.full.pdf+html

Gregor, S., 2006. The Nature of Theory in Information Systems, 30(3), pp.611–642.
Sutton, R. & Staw, B.M., 2013. ASQ Forum What Theory is Not., 40(3), pp.371–384.

Reflection Theme 2: Critical Media Studies

During this week’s lecture and seminar we discussed, reflected and listened to Leif Dahlberg and other students opinions on the subject of Adorno and Horkheimers book Dialectic of Enlightenment. It was fascinating to get a better sense of understanding how culture elite - such as Horkeheimer and Adorno and also other cultural critics from the Frankfurt School had become extremely powerful influential’s. The book - which was written by the two mentioned above – was written while they were exiles living in the US during the world war 2 because of their Jewish roots and also their political beliefs. During the period 1920-1930 many question about what went wrong due the fact that Germany was an extremely cultural influence at that period (such as Beethoven for example). Horkheimer & Adorno became influential for the reason that of their urge to dig deeper into the question trying to provide answers to "what went wrong" and how Germany had reached this point.

I feel that both the seminar and the lecture was of great importance for a broader understanding to the book and it was also interesting to be part of the discussion which showed that almost everybody associated the literature from the 1940s and draw parallels towards mass media today.

“Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of the soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.” – the quotation by Karl Marx and conceivably an influential part for Horkheimers and Adornos chapter about Cultural Industry, Mass media and Mass deception. Dahlberg mentioned during the lecture if this “opium-thinking” could be compared to social media. Pacifying communities, stop the society and individuals to ask critical questions and also maximizing profits for the industry by controlling the masses. During the seminar we also discussed the Marxist theory, about base, material structure and superstructure, which are the parts his theory consists of. Where the base determines the superstructure (which is in almost most cases one generation behind) and how google is in a way doing the opposite, because of the fact that google controls the base. The base is the relation of production, while ideology, education, and laws determine the superstructure. My favorite part of the seminar was when we discussed cultural industry and the mass deception. That mass media should serve people as an instrument to enlightenment. Individualism was a definition many of us wanted to discuss, also the strive for mankind to be individualists, as well as the definition of the word. How we cannot determinate what an individualist is, how this is an illusion of being “not part of a group” which we in one way or another always will be. Despite of what choices we make there will always be someone with the same political thought, the same taste in music, liking the same colors as you do. Even though people are trying to take a path as not being a part of mass deception, it’s difficult. Additionally we discussed how Adorno felt concerning going to the movies, the fear of being amused by the same jokes as others, becoming a part of the same social body.

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies

1. What is Enlightenment? 

The definition of Enlightenment is explained according to Adorno and Horkheimer as a dominant authority over persons and objects. Throughout the text they argue for the fact that this authority could be compared as a relationship presentable as dictatorship over humans. They give the example: "The man of science know s things to the extent that he can make them" - which shows that the ideology to master a specific art to the extent where people try to gather enough information to master nature, which is extensively explained as something unknown - something that is fearful. In a sense, this could be narrowed down to how humans want the role of what "a God" is said to have. They also present the fact that calculability and utility is a form of presenting this "knowledge of power", and emphasizes that the weakness lies within the things, who can not be supported by these certain standards, should always be viewed with doubt. Mentioning that for Enlightenment thinkers everything is an illusion if not being able to be solved by numbers. This type of "mastering" could be reflected in the way that we should doubt facts until we are able to prove the opposite, and also the ability to defeat restrictions and uncertainties. My mind strikes towards the bing bang and the discussion between believers vs. scientists, God vs. science - that also could be defined as Myths vs. Enlightenment.

2. What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?

A "myth" is the form of presenting an unexplainable subject, a description of phenomena, which people might fear and in this way reduce the feeling and gather control of lacking power over the unknown. The fear over the unknown is present in both Enlightenment and Myths and both of these terms provide solutions towards the actual fear. They differ in the way that Myths contribute an answer as a belief. The function of Myth is explained according to Adorna and Horkheimer as a way to report, name and tell of origins and also narrate, record and explain. 


3. What are "old" and "new" media that are discussed in the Dialectic of Enlightenment?

Adorno and Horkheimer do not specify certain "new" and "old" media. They mention in the chapter "The concept of Enlightenment" different types of media while discussing Technology as the essence of knowledge and describe these as following; the radio as a sublimated printing press, the dive bomber as a more effective form of artillery, remote control as a more reliable compass. Other media that are discussed in the book are A and B-films, different stories in magazines and radio, which could be categorized as "new media" where capitalistic thoughts are present at all time. While old media - is more an artistic movement than focused on a capitalistic profit.
4. What is the meant by "culture industry"? 

The description of culture industry is an industry that provides culture, as for example media, towards society. These industries have certain standardization in the extent to feed the population with "must haves" in a manipulative way to create passivity through mass consumption. Adorno and Horkheimer highlights that this type of industry creates psychological needs that encourage consumption to gain a capitalistic profit. Active and personalized thinking about what is really of significant meaning for consumers is neglected through this type of industry.

5. What is the relationship between mass media and "mass deception", according to Adorna & Horkheimer?

The relationship is to generate a demand in society, by using mass media and in that way create mass deception. This type of deception contributes the capitalistic structure by forcing people to shape their thoughts of consuming into a narrow mindset.  

6. Please identify one or two concepts/terms that you find particulary interesting. Motivate your choice.

Who decides these certain standardizations and what is it behind the structure of the mass feeding? I feel that the industrialization of mass media is an attention-grabbing subject and even though Adorna & Horkheimer wrote the book in 1940 it is a tremendously relevant topic even now – 70 years later. While reading the chapter it immediately made me think that their influence is based on Marxism and politics are an underlining part to their work. By creating a desire through this type of propaganda and must-have feeding the businesses that are included to the culture industry get the power to control people as marionette dolls – directing people in a certain course. The social control can be compared to gaming – where cultural industry are the players in front of the screen and the people are the characters who have predetermined options, rules and restrictions. 

Reflection Theme 1: Theory of Science

The concept of Russells text, which is wide to translate, would have been eye opening to discuss during the seminar which was cancelled for the week. My thoughts about the subject of existence have been somehow clarifying for the mind in the sense that we all probably interpret Russells opinions differently. But I’m certain that most of the students after this assignment question facts and existence different from before. While scrolling through my co-students blogs I felt that a few have debated differently than others – although many have drawn interesting conclusions to how they relate to the questions. This winds up in the thought that goes back to Russells book – where the perception shows that we all draw conclusions in different ways. I totally wasn’t prepared on questioning facts as I have done after this assignment.

The outcome of an item is for me hard to grasp that during my period of studies we face right and wrong. For example math - either it is right – and you are able to prove it, or it’s wrong. Although I feel that it’s interesting to scratch the surface of this area, it makes me a bit nervous at the same time. While writing the text I reflected over my own beliefs and experiences, which made me, go back to my childhood. The behaviour patterns and perceptions of reality differ unconsciously how we create ideals for subjects and propositions in our minds. 

I suppose that we all would have had a wider discussion about the questions and reflections in verbal thoughts than while writing the answers - due the fact that the assignment was restricted to 800 words. Although, it’s interesting to see how engineering students reflect over a philosophical text, which I suppose – at least for most of us, is not the most ordinary area. 

Theme 1: Theory of Science

1.What does Russell mean by ”sense data” and why does he introduce this notion?

Why do we perceive an actual object the way we do? This is the way Russell discusses the sense data and argue about how we immediately identify a certain object. Russell underlines that reflection is made by a person in two categories: knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. The sense data could be presented as an interaction with objects surrounding us. These objects are reflected in the mean of our personal senses and can therefore have different outcomes depending on what person perceives the particular object. Different senses are used by interpretation of the object such as smell, color and shape. Russell emphasizes a difference of perceiving information data and the question if it really exists or if the reality is not actually the appearance of an object how we perceive it.  

2. What is the meaning of the terms “proposition” and “statement of fact”? How does propositions and statement of facts differ from other kinds of verbal expressions? 

According to Russell a proposition is defined as a personal belief about a specific item. This belief can in many cases vary between from whom the proposition is implied from. Different circumstances can in this case be relevant. For example: “John is very tall”, we don’t know if this is true or false because the person who makes the proposition might be really short – which shows that it is a personal assumption about John and has not necessarily have to be true for one who has not made the statement.

A proposition might be the base to the statement of fact - where a certain amount of people recognizes the proposition and considering it to be true. This can be supported by different facts such as “the average length in this community is 1.58 cm, and John is 2.30 centimeters which makes him very tall”.  This makes it possible to reduce the fact that he could be short. Although, we cannot eliminate the possibility that John is tall in other communities. In both these cases it exists truths and falsehoods, even though statement of facts might be including a bit more truth. They both differ from other kinds of verbal expressions because they are subjective and dependable on context and surroundings if they are true or not. 

3. In chapter 5 (“knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description”) Russell introduces the notion “define description”. What does this notion mean?

According to Russell our knowledge for an object could be increased through a definite description - which he states is in the form "the so-and-so". This decreases misunderstanding and is more developed than the ambiguous description, which is in "a so-and-so" form. An ambiguous description could be for example "a building" while the definite description is more than just a singular object - such as "a school building designed in the mid eighties". In a way we could imagine ourselves a funnel where the ambiguous description is in the beginning and the definite distinguishes the wide spectrum towards understanding the subject in a greater term.

4. In chapter 13 (“Knowledge, Error and Probable Opinion”) and in chapter 14 (“The Limits of Philosopical Knowledge”) Russell attacks traditional problems in theory of knowledge (epistemology). What are the main points in Russell’s presentation?

In the chapters Russell discusses knowledge in the sense of the possibility to interpret how we can know if something is true or false. He states that our knowledge is perceived in a way that it may be a true belief that is based on a false proposition. But what is true belief? Russell underlines the two structures of understanding towards the subject: knowledge about truth and knowledge about things. The fact that we need to be critical towards trustworthy knowledge is stated in the chapter where he mentions an example about a man thinking that the late Prime Minister's name starts with "B", which is true, he thinks that the name is Balfour, but his real name is Bannerman. This is a typical example of how a truth and conclusion is based on false premises.